Afghanistan

Afghanistan is located at the crossroads of several great civilizations and religions. Northern Afghanistan is one of the likely birthplaces of Zoroaster, and the religion he founded, Zoroastrianism, had a significant influence in the region for many centuries. In the sixth century BCE, the Achaemenid Persian Empire conquered the territory. In 330 BCE, the Macedonian armies of Alexander the Great captured the region, which became home for a significant number of Greek colonists and a center of Hellenism in Central Asia. Shortly afterward, the Maurya Empire, based in India, conquered much of southern Afghanistan and introduced Buddhism. In the second century BCE, the Kushans established an empire based in Afghanistan that lasted almost 400 years; their religious toleration led to the flourishing of various traditions, particularly Mahayana Buddhism. The Kushan Empire entered a prolonged decline after 300 CE, as various other Indo-European peoples established control over the area. Muslim armies arrived in the seventh century, and once again established Afghanistan as a center for learning and culture. Turkic migrations disrupted the region after the tenth century, but it was the arrival of Mongol armies under Genghis Khan that shattered the political structure of the region. During the following centuries, various dynasties struggled for control of Afghanistan. By the sixteenth century, the main contenders were the Mughal Empire in India and the Safavids in Iran. By exploiting the rivalry between these two powers, local Pashtun tribes were eventually able to achieve some measure of independence.

Resistance to the Soviet occupation was organized primarily around a broad range of religious and tribal groups who were supported by various foreign governments, including the United States, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia. In addition, volunteers from several Muslim countries joined the local Mujahideen in their struggle. Rising casualties and an inability to suppress the guerrillas led the Soviets to withdraw in 1989, and subsequently the Communist government was overthrown in 1992. The complex anti-Soviet alliance quickly fell apart, and the country became embroiled in a new civil war as warlords turned their armies on each other. In response, many Pashtun joined the Taliban, a fundamentalist organization that sought to apply a strict, local version of Sharia law. During the 1990s, the Taliban succeeded in gaining control of most of the country, with only the far north remaining under the control of the opposition Northern Alliance. Under Taliban rule the rights of all inhabitants, particularly women, were severely restricted and many symbols of Afghanistan’s pre-Islamic era were destroyed. The Taliban also allowed Osama bin Laden, leader of Al-Qaeda and an influential figure in the fight against Soviet occupation during the 1980s, to retain camps in their areas of the country. After the attacks of September 11, 2001, and the subsequent refusal of the Taliban to expel bin Laden, American forces assisted the Northern Alliance in seizing control of the country. The new government, led by Hamid Karzai, faces serious difficulties in rebuilding Afghanistan after decades of conflict. Moreover, the Taliban remain an active and violent presence throughout much of the countryside.