Brazil
Brazil possesses both a strictly secular government and a richly spiritual society formed from the meeting of the Roman Catholic Church with the religious traditions of African slaves and indigenous peoples. This confluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization of Brazil (1500-1815) led to the development of a diverse array of syncretistic practices within the overarching umbrella of Brazilian Roman Catholicism. Catholicism was the only recognized religion during colonial rule, and in 1824 it became the official religion of an independent Empire of Brazil that also guaranteed religious freedom. The shift to a republic in 1889 led to the adoption of a strictly secular constitution two years later, but the Catholic Church remained politically influential into the late 20th century. Religious pluralism has increased dramatically since the 1970s, largely due to a Protestant community that has grown to include over 15% of the population. The Constitution of Brazil guarantees freedom of religion and prohibits government support or hindrance of religion at all levels.
ESSAYS ON BRAZIL
Colonial, Imperial, and Early Republican Periods
The Catholic Church arrived in Brazil with the first Portuguese settlers and quickly established itself as a key social institution of the colonial period. However, the Church did not reach the level of institutional strength that it enjoyed in much of Spanish America and quickly suffered from a chronic shortage of priests, leading to the proliferation of vibrant popular and syncretistic religious beliefs and practices. Following the establishment of an independent Empire of Brazil in 1822, the ties between the Brazilian Church and the state became increasingly close. However, this ultimately furthered the institutional weakness of the Catholic Church as it became dependent on imperial patronage and competed with Freemasonry for the favor of the court. At the same time, its declining influence in the everyday life of Brazilians grew more pronounced. The Vatican’s push for greater ecclesiastical centralization in the late nineteenth century led to a series of confrontations with the Brazilian regime that contributed to the weakening of the empire. In 1889, the monarchy was overthrown and replaced by a secular republic. A local religious insurrection led by a charismatic preacher with no ties to the Catholic establishment was violently put down in 1897 in what came to be known as the War of Canudos. Over the next few decades, the Church sought to expand its influence among elites and impose an orthodox Catholicism on society. The strengthening of the state under Getulio Vargas, Brazil’s de facto ruler from 1930-1954, corresponded to the high-water mark of this type of interaction between Church and state.
Dictatorship, Democracy, and the Brazilian Catholic Church
The changes in the organization of the Brazilian Catholic Church during the first half of the twentieth century set the stage for its radical transformation during the second. The Church increased its involvement in the education of elites, and attempts to bring more orthodox Catholicism to marginalized peoples increased awareness of the plight of peasants and Indians among a number of priests and bishops. Many clergy members and lay leaders thus supported the attempts at social and political reform that took place during the post-Vargas Republic (1954-1964). However, growing unrest and fear of Communism led the Church hierarchy to endorse the military coup of 1964. Still, a few bishops and numerous priests, particularly in the poorer regions, strongly criticized the military government’s economic policies and human rights record. During the 1970s, the Catholic Church emerged as a key pro-democracy voice within civil society. Ecclesiastical Base Communities (CEBs) – small groups of believers who focused on linking grassroots religion and secular change – spread throughout the countryside. These became the foundations of the so-called “popular church,” which assertively advocated social justice and became increasingly influential within the Catholic Church as a whole. By 1979, the Brazilian Church was the most progressive in Latin America, while managing to avoid many of the confrontations between radicals and conservatives that wracked other churches in the region. However, in the 1980s, with the gradual transition to democracy and the conservative turn in the Vatican, the “popular church” lost much of its strength. This trend continued over the following decades and was reinforced by the growing influence of Protestant movements.
The Growth of Religious Pluralism
Brazil experienced a dramatic religious transformation during the last decades of the twentieth century. Its society remained extremely spiritual overall, with an overwhelming majority of the population professing a belief in God. However, this religiosity has taken on an increasing variety of forms. Some resurgent traditions, such as Spiritisim, have deep roots in the syncretistic practices of colonial Brazil, and its adherents account for up to 5 percent of the population. Yet it is the explosive growth of Pentecostal Protestantism that has fundamentally altered the country’s religious arena. Protestant churches established a presence in Brazil during the first half of the 20th century, but their members accounted for fewer than 5 percent of the population until the 1960s. However, by 2000, they made up over 15 percent of the population, and a substantially larger percentage of those who regularly attend church services. Pentecostal groups account for the vast majority of this expansion. With their emphasis on personal salvation and strict moral codes as well as a less ideological approach to politics, these groups have developed broad appeal, particularly among the booming urban migrant communities in places like São Paulo. The political consequences of this shift are still poorly understood, as the fragmentation of the Pentecostal community has weakened it as a vehicle for direct political action. Over the longer run, their development will probably have an important, if difficult to predict, effect on the cultural landscape of Brazil.
Contemporary Affairs
Generally, the intersection of religion and politics in Brazil has developed into a peaceful coexistence, although there have been some recent episodes of tension and conflict. In March 2009, President Luiz Ignacio da Silva publicly chided the Archbishop of Olinda and Recife over the latter’s excommunication of several people involved in performing an abortion on a 9-year-old girl who was raped by her stepfather. This resulted in a public defense of the bishop by the head of the Pontifical Commission for Latin America. Within Brazil’s religious sector specifically, the development of inclusive gay churches has ignited controversy and stirred criticism from evangelical and Catholic Churches. Although Brazil is home to the world’s largest Roman Catholic population and the Catholic Church remains extremely influential, the country’s 2010 census figures marked the Catholic population at 68 percent - the lowest figure since the census began tracking religion in 1872. Meanwhile, Brazil’s growing Protestant community continued to find a public voice as the annual “March for Jesus” in Sao Paulo drew over a million members from various Evangelical churches. In recent years, there have also been some incidents of social conflict relating to discrimination against followers of religious minorities such as the Afro-Brazilian faith known as Candomble. In November of 2011, Brazil indigenous Guarani leader Nisio Gomes was shot dead in western Brazil. Gomes was part of a Guarani Kaiowa group that had returned to their ancestral land after being evicted by ranchers. The Rio de Janeiro State Legislature has attempted to respond to these problems by creating a religious intolerance hotline to report incident of religious violence and help victims of abuse.
Religious Freedom in Brazil
Brazilian law recognizes and protects religious freedom, and does not grant special recognition to any particular faith. This legal framework has reinforced a pattern of peaceful accommodation of minority faiths. Thus, although religious diversity has increased dramatically over the last three decades due to the expansions of Evangelical and Pentecostal communities, this has not resulted in substantial inter-communal or state-religion conflict. Members of Afro-Brazilian faith communities have been historically tolerated but often marginalized, and continue to suffer from discrimination at the social level. Followers of other religious faiths, including Spiritualism, Buddhism, Shinto, Judaism, Islam, and Hinduism, do not generally experience systematic discrimination. This pattern of effective accommodation is reflected in the realm of education. Religious education is provided in public schools, with the curriculum determined by local educators and parents; attendance is optional. Schools run by religious groups do not receive state funding. The Pew Forum’s Global Restrictions on Religion report describes Brazil as having the lowest combination of government restrictions and social hostilities among the 25 most populous countries in the world. Despite the government being secular in its constitution, Brazilian politicians are often hesitant to advocate policies that the Catholic Church would oppose. However, the government has taken positions that contravene those of the Church hierarchy, such as the granting of legal recognition to same-sex unions in 2004, demonstrating the country’s separation of Church and state.
Religion in the Brazilian Constitution
The Brazilian Constitution of 1988 begins with an invocation of God, which alludes to the spiritual nature of the country. Article 5 protects freedom of belief, practice, and the sanctity of religious spaces, and prohibits discrimination on the basis of religious affiliation. Also containing a strong anti-establishment clause, Article 5 prevents any level of government – federal, state, and local – from aiding or hindering any religious denomination. Pursuant to Article 210, religious education in public schools is provided and managed on a local level to support the community’s needs, but these classes are optional for students. State funding may also be used to support religious education so long as no preference is shown toward a particular tradition. The constitution also acknowledges the legitimacy of religious marriages and allows conscientious objectors to replace military service with civilian service. Finally, the traditional beliefs of native inhabitants are explicitly recognized and protected.
Article 5: Freedom of Conscience and Non-discrimination
VI. Freedom of conscience and of belief is inviolable, the free exercise of religious cults being ensured and, under the terms of the law, the protection of places of worship and their rites being guaranteed;
VII. Under the terms of the law, the rendering of religious assistance in civil and military establishments of collective confinement is ensured;
VIII. No one shall be deprived of any rights by reason of religious belief or philosophical or political conviction, unless he invokes it to exempt himself from a legal obligation required of all and refuses to perform an alternative obligation established by law ...
Article 19: Disestablishment
The Union, the states, the Federal District and the municipalities are forbidden to:
I. Establish religious sects or churches, subsidize them, hinder their activities, or maintain relationships of dependence or alliance with them or their representatives, without prejudice to collaboration in the public interest in the manner set forth by law;
Article 143: Exemption from Military Service
Military service is compulsory as set forth by law.
Paragraph 1 - It is within the competence of the Armed Forces, according to the law, to assign an alternative service to those who, in times of peace, after being enlisted, claim imperative of conscience, which shall be understood as originating in religious creed and philosophical or political belief, for exemption from essentially military activities.
Article 210: Religion in Public Schools
Minimum curricula shall be established for elementary schools in order to ensure a common basic education and respect for national and regional cultural and artistic values.
Paragraph 1 - The teaching of religion is optional and shall be offered during the regular school hours of public elementary schools.
Article 213: Public Funding for Religious Schools
Public funds shall be allocated to public schools, and may be channeled to community, religious or philanthropic schools, as defined by law, which
I. Prove that they do not seek profit and that they apply their surplus funds in education;
II. Ensure that their assets shall be assigned to another community, religious or philanthropic schools, or to the Government in case they cease their activities.
Article 226: Civil Effects of Religious Marriage
The family, which is the foundation of society, shall enjoy special protection from the State.
Paragraph 2 - Religious marriage has civil effects, in accordance with the law.
Article 231: Recognition of Indigenous Traditions
Indians shall have their social organization, customs, languages, creeds and traditions recognized, as well as their original rights to the lands they traditionally occupy, it being incumbent upon the Union to demarcate them, protect and ensure respect for all of their property.
