Canada

The first European settlers in the territory of present-day Canada were the French, who, after several failed colonization attempts, established a series of forts and trading posts in Newfoundland and Quebec. Jesuit missionaries followed the traders, and sought to gain converts among the Native American tribes. Their activities were often intertwined with exploration; for example, Father Jacques Marquette was among the first to map the northern reaches of the Mississippi. Initially, French Huguenots, Protestants who faced persecution in France, also sought to establish a presence in the territory, but after the 1620s they were forbidden from settling in New France, and many moved south to the British possessions. Between 1754 and 1763, the French colonies in Canada were captured by the British, as part of the broader Seven Years’ War. The British policies towards the French-speaking Catholic population of Quebec were relatively lenient, allowing it to retain its religion and system of law. The emigration of British loyalists from the United States after the American War of Independence led to a significant increase in the Canadian population, and diversified its religious and cultural composition. The old French holdings were divided into Lower Canada, which was primarily inhabited by Catholic French-speakers, and Upper Canada, which was primarily Protestant and English-speaking. Attempts to assimilate the French-speaking population by integrating the two provinces during the 19th century met with limited success. In 1867, the Confederation of the provinces created the Dominion of Canada, transforming Lower and Upper Canada into Quebec and Ontario.

European migration to Western Canada brought central government authorities into conflict with local populations, which included both aboriginal peoples, known as the First Nations, and French-speaking descendants of mixed marriages between fur traders and natives, known as the Metís. First Nations faced significant discrimination, including the prohibition of traditional rituals such as the sun dance. At times, members of both groups violently resisted encroachment on their lands, but were usually coerced into submission. Following a rebellion, the popular Metís leader Louis Riel was executed by government authorities despite his popularity among the French-speaking population. The central government also attempted to abolish French as an official language and eliminate state funding for Catholic schools in the western province of Manitoba. A compromise was finally reached, but these affairs contributed to the growing tension between French-speaking Catholics and English-speaking Protestants. Canada’s participation in the First World War initially boosted patriotic sentiment and eased the tensions. However, the imposition of conscription in later years was radically unpopular among the French Canadian population, a pattern that was repeated during the Second World War. During the wars, Jehovah’s Witnesses, whose religion was not legally recognized, were persecuted for their refusal to participate in the military effort and their publication of literature critical of the government. These experiences led them to become active advocates for the establishment of a Canadian Bill of Rights, which was passed in large part as a result of their advocacy in 1960, expressly guaranteeing freedom of religion.

Starting in 1960, secularization and nationalism combined to reshape the religio-political landscape of Canada. Quebec underwent a particularly profound transformation during the following decade, which featured the expansion of public education, the secularization of schools, and the establishment of ministries of health and education, displacing the Catholic Church as the main provider of education and healthcare in the region. In addition, separatist movements also sprung up in Quebec, some of which used violence to press their claims. In Canada’s far north, the Inuit people also began to push for political recognition. Canada ratified a new constitution in 1982, which included the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, reaffirming religious freedom. In 1987, a proposed constitutional amendment meant to secure greater autonomy for Quebec and recognize it as a “distinct society”, as well as address the needs of the indigenous population, failed due to opposition from aboriginal leaders, who felt they had not been adequately consulted, and fears that it conceded too much power to the provinces. However, in 1995, a referendum on Québécois secession failed by a margin of only 1 percent, leading to the passage of the Clarity Act, which effectively set a higher bar for secession. In 1999, the Canadian government transferred control of an enormous amount of land in northeastern Canada to the Inuit, known as Nunavut. Its inhabitants are primarily Protestant, but their beliefs often incorporate elements of traditional Inuit religion. While religious disputes in Canada are generally low-key, current issues include the religio-political implications of Canada’s 2005 legalization of same-sex marriage.