Indonesia
influences, and a largely secular, democratic government that holds monotheism as one of its governing principles. Indonesia was long dominated by Indian Dharmic traditions, but Islam was introduced in the 14th century and gradually became the predominant religion of the archipelago. In the 16th century, Portuguese and Dutch colonizers introduced Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. After Indonesia secured its independence in 1949, the role of religion became a point of contention between nationalists, Islamic activists, and Communists. The Suharto dictatorship (1967-98) repressed political opposition but faced sustained challenges from Islamic and liberal groups. Since the transition to democracy in 1999, Indonesia has experienced some sporadic sectarian violence. The Indonesian Constitution guarantees religious freedom, but the government only recognizes six religions: Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Protestantism, Catholicism, and Confucianism. The Indonesian governing philosophy of Pancasila holds the “belief in the One and Only God” as essential, requiring all religions to ensure their theologies are understood in monotheistic terms.
ESSAYS ON INDONESIA
Early Hindu and Muslim Dynasties
Archaeological evidence demonstrates that Hinduism had arrived in Indonesia by the first century CE, likely through visits by Indian traders, though there are no historical records to determine the extent of its influence. However, by the fourth century, several notable Hindu kingdoms had been founded on the Indonesian islands of Java and Borneo, such as Tarumanagara and Kutai Martadipura. The island of Sumatra was taken over by the Sriwijayas, a Vajrayana Buddhist Kingdom, in the seventh century. Over the next several hundred years, Buddhism and Hinduism blended with native beliefs to create a syncretistic tradition unique to Southeast Asia. Records from the Majapahit Empire in the thirteenth century tell of kings patronizing prominent Hindu deities, including Shiva and Vishnu, while simultaneously following the teachings of Mahayana Buddhism. Muslim traders visiting northern Sumatra began to establish an Islamic presence in Indonesia in the thirteenth century, and Islam slowly spread across the region. Sufi saints played a large role in the transculturation of Islam to Indonesia, blending traditional island practices with Muslim teachings in a syncretistic tradition that persists to the present. The last of the Hindu Majaphit kings was taken over by a Muslim Sultanate in the early sixteenth century, although Bali retained a Hindu majority. The Sultans began to enforce Sharia and to use Arabic script for legal matters and, eventually, for day-to-day life. The Sultanates ruled until the early nineteenth century, when Dutch colonizers took control of the island of Java.
The Dutch Colonial Period and the Independence Movement
Although both Portuguese Catholics and Dutch Protestants had been sending missionaries to Indonesia since the sixteenth century, the Christian presence in the archipelago remained limited until the creation of the Dutch East India Company in 1602. The Company captured Java and maintained economic and religious control of the island. In 1816, the Dutch state took over the Company, and by the early twentieth century dominated almost all of present-day Indonesia. Although the Dutch encouraged conversions, the administration allowed Muslim leaders to retain governmental positions. Independence movements began to emerge over the course of the early twentieth century, some of which had important Islamic elements. Following Japanese occupation during World War II, two Indonesian leaders, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, declared Indonesian independence in 1945. Indonesia was recognized as a sovereign state by the Netherlands in 1949. The new constitution was based on the doctrine of Pancasila, the five guiding principles of the Indonesian nation. These included a belief in the "one and only God," though this reference to God is not meant to be specific to any particular religion. Some Muslims in the constitutional process favored a modification of Pancasila known as the Jakarta Charter, which would have explicitly specified that Muslims must obey Islamic law (Sharia), but Hatta removed the modification for the sake of national unity. Sukarno’s broad and unstable governing coalition included nationalists, advocates of political Islam, and Communists, resulting in frequent clashes and an increasingly unstable government.
Suharto and Religious Actors
Sukarno bases of support began to crumble in 1965, and he was formally ousted from his the presidency in 1967, whereupon a new leader, Suharto, took over the government. Suharto’s ensuing “New Order” regime aligned itself with the United States and severely restricted political opposition. The government sponsored the formation of two nominal opposition parties, with the United Development Party (UDP) catering to conservative Muslims. In 1974, Indonesia seized East Timor, a Catholic-majority region that subsequently experienced 25 years of occupation. Despite recurrent challenges from a variety of opposition actors, Suharto remained in power until 1998, when economic mismanagement in the wake of the Asian financial crisis made his position unsustainable. During the period of instability surrounding Suharto’s fall, sectarian violence broke out in several quarters between Muslims and non-Muslims. Recently, a minority of Indonesian Muslims has supported the transnational trend towards more conservative interpretations of Islam, and some local governments have reinstated Sharia law. In the aggregate, however, radical groups do not have substantial support, particularly those that advocate violence. Indonesia has suffered from a series of terrorist attacks, including the 2002 and 2005 Bali bombings perpetrated by Jemaah Islamiyah, which have met with widespread condemnation. In contrast, peaceful Islamic associations like Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama remain among Indonesia’s largest and most significant social actors.
Contemporary Affairs
Recent events in Indonesia raise questions about the government’s ability to balance religious freedom with deference to Islamic tradition in what is often a challenging environment. In August 2010, conservative Islamic groups carried out a series of attacks on Christian Churches and Ahmadiyya mosques in Jakarta and its surrounding suburbs, and three members of the Ahmadiyya sect were beaten to death by a mob in February 2011. Ahmadiyya organizations, a sect of Islam that some Muslims consider heretical, have been banned from proselytizing in Indonesia since 2008, and have become targets of violent altercations. As recently as May 2012, protests spearheaded by radical Islamic groups led to the cancellation of an impending Lady Gaga concert and outspokenly demonstrated a strong anti-Christian sentiment. Also in May 2012, a mob of approximately 600 fanatical Islamists hurled bags of urine and ditchwater at about 100 members of the Philadelphia Batak Christian Protestant Church in Bekasi, near Jakarta in West Java Province. These incidents have led to a record number of Church closures throughout the country with twenty-two Churches having been forced to close in 2012 alone. Over the last few years, the country’s Christian and Shi'a minorities have faced a drastic increase of incidents concerning violations of religious freedom.
Religious Freedom in Indonesia
The Indonesian Constitution was drafted in the wake of a long struggle for independence and emphasizes former President Sukarno’s inclusive nationalist ideology known as Pancasila. Indonesia is home to the world’s largest Muslim population and a number of thriving Islamic movements. The Indonesian Constitution recognizes freedom of religious expression yet also proclaims monotheism as a founding principal of Indonesian nationalism. The state officially recognizes six religious communities: Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism. Indigenous animists and other unrecognized religious communities face some obstacles and must register with the state as cultural organizations. Conversion, proselytism, and intermarriage are heavily restricted, and blasphemy is a punishable offense. However, Indonesia’s mainstream religious leaders typically preach pluralism, and the majority of Indonesians harbor tolerant attitudes towards other faiths. Conflicts between rival religious movements are not uncommon in several of Indonesia’s major provinces, including Moluccas, Central Sulawesi, Papua, and Kalimantan. Clashes between religious groups are often precipitated by economic factors or tension due to recent immigration. In the wake of a series of high profile terrorist attacks, including bombings at a Bali nightclub in 2002 and at the Australian Embassy in 2004, the Indonesian government cracked down on some of the more conservative Islamic organizations, arresting several popular clerics. At the same time, several Indonesian provinces have been permitted to enforce local Sharia law. Religious police in the Muslim-majority Aceh Province have drawn controversy by enforcing Islamic dress and modesty codes.
Religion in the Indonesian Constitution
The Indonesian Constitution of 1945 is based on the doctrine of Pancasila, the five principles of the nation. The principles, as stated in the Preamble, include: a belief in the one and only God; the unity of Indonesia; deliberative representative democracy; just and civilized humanity; and social justice for all Indonesians. Article 28 guarantees individuals' freedom to choose and practice their religion, as well as to express their faith in accordance with their conscience. Article 29 states that the state is based on the belief in the one and only God, while also reaffirming the guarantee of individual religious freedom. Article 9 requires the President to be sworn into office before God. While voting on the constitution in 1945, Indonesians rejected an amendment to make their country a Muslim nation.
Article 9: Oath of Office
(1) Prior to taking office, the President and Vice President shall swear an oath in accordance with their respective religions or shall make a solemn promise before the MPR or DPR. The oath or promise shall be as follows ...
Article 28: Human Rights
(1) Every person shall be free to choose and to practice the religion of his/her
choice, to choose one's education, to choose one's employment, to choose one's
citizenship, and to choose one's place of residence within the state territory, to
leave it and to subsequently return to it.
(2) Every person shall have the right to the freedom to believe his/her faith
(kepercayaan), and to express his/her views and thoughts, in accordance with
his/her conscience.
(3) Every person shall have the right to the freedom to associate, to assemble
and to express opinions.
Article 29: Religion
(1) The State shall be based upon the belief in the One and Only God.
(2) The State guarantees all persons the freedom of worship, each according to his/her own religion or belief.
Preamble
...By the grace of God Almighty and motivated by the noble desire to live a free national life, the people of Indonesia hereby declare their independence.
Subsequent thereto, to form a government of the state of Indonesia which shall
protect all the people of Indonesia and all the independence and the land that
has been struggled for, and to improve public welfare, to educate the life of the
people and to participate toward the establishment of a world order based on
freedom, perpetual peace and social justice, therefore the independence of
Indonesia shall be formulated into a constitution of the Republic of Indonesia
which shall be built into a sovereign state based on a belief in the One and Only
God, just and civilised humanity, the unity of Indonesia, and democratic life led
by wisdom of thoughts in deliberation amongst representatives of the people, and achieving social justice for all the people of Indonesia.
