Libya
Libya is a complex country, divided by regional and tribal loyalties, though tentatively united by a common faith. Islam has long played a central role in Libyan political life. The Senussi religious order led resistance to Italian imperialism in the 19th and early 20th centuries. After World War II, a pro-Western Senussi monarch governed the country until 1969, when Muammar al-Gaddafi overthrew the monarchy in a military coup. Gadhafi did not hesitate to appeal to religious sentiments to legitimize his rule. His distinctive and despotic governing style included the establishment of numerous state-led religious institutions and the passage of multiple laws promoting Gadhafi's idiosyncratic understanding of Islam. At the same time, Gadhafi repressed Islamic clerics and Islamist leaders who threatened his rule. Following Gadhafi’s overthrow in 2011, Libya is embarking on a shaky path towards stability under an interim government. The role of Islam in the new state remains to be seen, though many emerging leaders emphasize the importance of adherence to Islamic principles.
ESSAYS ON LIBYA
Early History
In the fourth century CE, Coptic Orthodox Christianity came to the region of modern-day Libya from Egypt. Cyrenaica, an area comprising the eastern half of modern-day Libya, has been recognized by the Alexandria See as an ecclesiastical province since the Council of Nicaea in 325. However, even into the seventh century, when Arab Muslim conquerors arrived, indigenous beliefs still dominated the religious landscape. Islam was initially resisted by the Berber tribes populating the region, but resistance subsided in the eighth century and Islam came to dominate urban areas. In general, orthodox Islam took root among the educated population, while a more popular version of Islam mixed with pre-Islamic beliefs among the less educated urban population. Rural and desert areas maintained pre-Islamic beliefs until mass invasions of Egyptian and Arabian Bedouin tribes took place in the eleventh century. Sunni Islamic law made its way to North Africa through Libya. The Hanafi school first took root but was superseded in the ninth century by the more traditional Maliki school. Shi'ism also made its way to North Africa, creating a minority presence that was wiped out as the Maliki school took over. Between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, the Murabit (1056-1147) and Muwahhid (1130-1269) campaigns further augmented Islamic popular piety, making Islam predominant not just in urban areas but also among the tribes of the vast desert regions as well. It was also during the Murabit period that Sufism began to take hold in the area.
Islamic Dynasties and Ottoman Rule
For centuries, Libya existed on the outer rung of the control of the Muslim caliphs. After the Shi'ite Fatimid dynasty took control of Cairo in the tenth century, they had difficulty controlling the Libyan region. A Fatimid governor was inserted to control the region as a Shi'ite province, but the area quickly reverted to Sunni Islam. The coast of Tripoli remained the least governed area, and in the twelth century, Tripoli was invaded by Sicilian Normans. Only twelve years later, the Muslim Almohad dynasty of Morocco asserted control and established the Hafsid dynasty, which would rule Libya as a Muslim region for three centuries. The Catholic King Ferdinand of Spain took over Tripoli in 1528; ten years later, Muslim pirates took over and the area became known as the Barbary Coast. In 1551, the Ottomans conquered Libya but left the Barbary pirates in control of coastal areas. The Ottomans controlled the region in one form or another into the twentieth century. In the nineteenth century, the Muslim cleric Senussi, a Sufi Brotherhood leader, began an indigenous resistance movement to the Ottomans in the countryside. Senussi gained a large following and set up monasteries and religious colleges throughout North Africa. Senussi’s movement is considered the first Islamic movement in Libya, promoting a relatively conservative Islam. From the tenth through the twentieth century, minority religious groups continued to exist on the periphery of Libya’s religious landscape. This included a small Jewish population, Coptic Christians, as well as Sufi and Ibadi (Kharijite) Muslims.
Fall of the Ottomans, WWII, and Gaddafi
In 1912, the Ottoman provinces of Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica were awarded to Italy after the Turco-Italian War. The Italian regime worked to bring down the Senussi Sufi religious movement. During World War II (1939-1945), Fascist Italy persecuted Arabs and Jews in Libya, sending many to concentration camps. With British support, King Idris al-Senussi was put in place to rule Libya after independence in 1951. Muammar al-Gaddafi came to power through a coup in 1969, ruling the country for the next 42 years. The revolution under Gaddafi wiped out what remained of the Senussi movement and Orthodox Islam rose to prominence. A Sharia-based legal system was created, and social life became highly regulated according to a fundamentalist agenda; "immodest" dress, alcohol, and nightclubs were banned. In the 1970s, Gaddafi’s views on Islam seemed to change drastically. He challenged the role of the ulama and appointed himself mujtahid in order to interpret the Qur'an for the Libyan public in a manner that legitimized his political and social controls. In the 1980s, the Egyptian-based Muslim Brotherhood, which maintained a low profile in Libya, was banned from the country. Although Gaddafi has spoken against Christianity, Christian groups continue to exist in Libya and have diversified in the past century thanks to the arrival of immigrant groups. The largest Christian group remains Coptic Orthodox Christians, followed by Roman Catholics. Relations between Libya’s Muslims and Christians are generally peaceful.
Contemporary Affairs
The Arab Spring brought an end to Gaddafi’s regime, albeit at a significant cost in civilian lives. The government reacted violently to a pro-democracy uprising that began in February 2011, leading to a prolonged military struggle and the formation of an interim government under the National Transitional Council (NTC). Benghazi’s role as a hub of the revolution had religious significance due to its historic association with the Senussi Sufi order. Gaddafi’s strict monitoring of Libyan religious movements, including the Senussi and various Islamist organizations, contributed to widespread support among these groups for the 2011 uprising. During the conflict, the UN Security Council responded to Gaddafi’s brutal clampdown by authorizing a no-fly zone over Libya and allowing NATO forces to implement strikes against the Gaddafi government to protect rebel troops. In October 2011, the NTC declared the official liberation of Libya after killing Gaddafi in his hometown of Sirte. NTC chairman Mustafa Abd al-Jalil has called on Muslim leaders to use their status to promote national reconciliation and peace in Libya following the conflict. However, attempts by local militia leaders to assert control have raised concerns about the country’s stability. Divisions are especially apparent in oil-rich eastern Libya, where protesters in Benghazi in March 2012 demanded regional autonomy. Meanwhile, the NTC is opposing the International Criminal Court by asserting Libya’s right to independently try two high-profile members of the Gaddafi family despite concerns about the stability of Libyan courts. Libya successfully held its first democratic congressional election in July 2012, in which the moderate-to-liberal National Forces Alliance won a plurality of seats.
Religious Freedom in Libya
Since Gaddafi’s overthrow in 2011, the status of religious freedom in Libya has been difficult to assess. Reports of desecrations of Sufi and Catholic graves surfaced in early 2012. Emerging leaders’ calls for Libya to strengthen its adherence to Islamic principles, including the NTC chairman’s calls for Sharia to form the basis of the legal system, have also raised concerns among some advocates of religious freedom. Even before the revolution, issues of religious freedom in Libya were complex. Libya is 97 percent Sunni Muslim, though religious minority groups exist. These include Sufi and Ibadi Muslims, Coptic Christians, Roman Catholics, and Anglicans. A small Jewish population largely left Libya in the 1950s. Libya has no formal constitution and no official policies regarding religious freedom, though the 1988 Great Green Charter on Human Rights guaranteed freedom of conscience and stated the personal nature of religious belief. Under Gaddafi, the state required all religious groups to support official doctrine and outlawed groups that criticized the regime, including Islamist groups and the once-influential Senussi order. The government closely monitored the activity of Islamic organizations and censored the content of sermons and religious teachings in an effort to minimize political opposition. Christians were permitted to worship freely as long as they refrained from political activity and proselytism, though the state did limit Christian denominations to one church per city. Under Gaddafi, the government also maintained high-level dialogues with several Christian denominations, including the Church of England, the Catholic Church, and the Greek Orthodox Church.
Religion in the Libyan Constitution
The National Transitional Council (NTC) issued an interim Constitutional Declaration in August 2011 that named Sharia as the source of all legislation. The NTC plans to organize a direct election for a Constituent Assembly that will be responsible for drafting a new constitution. The status of Islam in the new constitution remains to be seen. Libya has never had a formal constitution, but its governing documents have consistently declared Libya an Islamic nation. The Maliki School of Sunni Islam informs much legislation, and Sharia law governs most personal status issues. Libya has no official guarantee of religious freedom, and minority groups have had a varied ability to practice their religion.
