Islam
Islam is a religious tradition stressing submission to God according to the revelations to the prophet Muhammad (570/571-632 CE), whom Muslims hold to be the last in a line of prophets including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muhammad's revelations are recorded in the Qur'an, the sacred scripture of Islam, and Muslims also consider hadith—reports of Muhammad's sayings and actions—to be authoritative guides for moral life. Divergent views on the proper leadership of the Muslim community (ummah) led to a split between Sunni and Shi'a Islam. With around 1.5 billion followers, Islam is the second largest religion in the world, predominating across the Middle East, North Africa, and many parts of Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Political Islam, often known as Islamism, is currently widespread in many Muslim-majority countries; most Islamist groups identify with the ideals of democracy, while a small minority support terrorism.
ESSAYS ON ISLAM:
Islam
伊斯兰教
Islam originated with the life and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (ca. 570-632 CE). A radically monotheistic faith that, like Judaism and Christianity, traces its origins back to Abraham, Islam spread rapidly across the Arabian Peninsula and into Asia, Africa, and Europe in the decades following Muhammad’s death. Islamic law is known as sharia and is based on the teachings of the Qur'an and the Sunnah (the sayings and actions of Muhammad). Five main schools of legal interpretation have emerged on this shared foundation, as have a variety of philosophies and spiritual practices, most notably Sufism. The major division within Islam, between majority Sunni and the minority Shi'a, can be traced to the power struggles for leadership of the Muslim community (ummah) after Muhammad's death. The majority tradition in Iran and Iraq today, Shi'ism is characterized by more hierarchical clerical structures and traditionally closer ties with the state.
伊斯兰教源于先知穆罕默德（公元570-632）的生平与学说。如同犹太教与基督教，这一激进的一神信仰溯自亚伯拉罕（易卜拉欣），并在穆罕默德死后的几十年间，迅速传遍阿拉伯半岛，以及亚洲、非洲和欧洲。伊斯兰法即众所周知的“沙里亚法”主要是依据《古兰经》与《圣行》（穆罕默德的言行记录）的教导。五大法理学派具有共同基础，但各有不同的哲学思想和精神实践，苏菲派尤为如此。伊斯兰教的主要分歧体现在作为多数派的逊尼派和作为少数派的什叶派之间。这可以追溯到穆罕默德死后对穆斯林世界（乌玛）领导权的争夺。什叶派是现今伊朗和伊拉克的主要传统，其特点是教内层级结构鲜明，并且在传统上与政府的关系更为密切。
Islamic Beliefs
伊斯兰教信仰
The core beliefs of Islam are that there is only one God—unitary and beyond comprehension—and that Muhammad is his prophet, the last in a series beginning with Adam and including Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. The Qur’an is upheld as the eternal, literal word of God, and revelations to earlier prophets, as portrayed in the Jewish and Christian scriptures, are believed to have been distorted by human intervention. Muslims believe that the Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel; angels as God’s servants are part of the Islamic tradition. Belief in the “Day of Judgment,” when all people will undergo bodily resurrection and be judged by God, is another core tenet. While Sunni and Shi’a Muslims adhere to these basic beliefs, Shi’a also believe in the Imamate, the line of infallible spiritual and political leaders who succeeded Muhammad, beginning with his cousin and son-in-law, Ali.
伊斯兰教的核心信仰是万物非主，独有真主，一元且超验，穆罕默德是主使者，是始于阿丹（亚当），并包括努哈（挪亚）、易卜拉欣（亚伯拉罕）、穆萨（摩西）、尔撒（耶稣）在内诸位使者中的最后一位。《古兰经》为真主永恒的不刊之说，早期使者的启示亦见于犹太教和基督教的圣典中，但穆斯林认为它们因人类的介入而失真。穆斯林相信《古兰经》由天使哲布勒依莱（加百列）向穆罕默德降示，相信天使是安拉的仆人也是伊斯兰教传统的一部分。伊斯兰教的另一核心教义是，在审判日所有人将经历肉体复生，并由安拉判决。逊尼派和什叶派均坚守其基本信仰，什叶派还相信伊玛目体制，相信精神和政治领导是绝无谬误的穆罕默德继承者，始于穆罕默德的堂兄和女婿阿里。
Islamic Practices
伊斯兰教实践
Muslims live their faith by performing the Five Pillars of Islam. The shahada is the Muslim declaration of faith that proclaims the belief in the oneness of Allah (tawhid) and that Muhammad is his prophet (rasul). Salat is the performance of ritual prayers each day (usually five times for Sunnis and three times for Shi’a) facing toward Mecca. Zakat is paying an alms tax to benefit the poor. Sawm is the practice of fasting during the month of Ramadan, which is the holiest month in the Islamic calendar. Finally, hajj is the pilgrimage that every able adult Muslim should undertake to Mecca at least once in his or her life. Dietary restrictions include prohibitions on pork, blood, carrion, and alcohol, and all meat must come from herbivorous animals slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Christian, or Jew, thus making it halal, or permissible. While most Muslim communities adhere to a form of Islamic law (sharia), Islam’s decentralized leadership allows for a variety of interpretations.
穆斯林通过遵行“五功”而在生活中坚守信仰。清真言是穆斯林的信仰宣言，宣告真主安拉的独一性，而穆罕默德为其使者。萨拉赫是面朝麦加的祈祷仪式（逊尼派教徒通常每天进行5次，而什叶派教徒则通常为3次）。施天课是缴纳施舍税额用以济贫。斋戒是在回历中最为神圣的月份斋月禁食。最后，朝觐是每位成年穆斯林有生之年应该至少成行一次的麦加朝圣。日常饮食禁食猪肉、血、腐肉和酒，所有肉类必须是由穆斯林、基督徒或犹太教徒以真主之名而屠宰的草食牲畜，只有这样的清真食品才允许食用。尽管多数穆斯林遵从某一形式的伊斯兰圣法（沙里亚法），但由于伊斯兰教没有中心领导结构，信众对圣法的解释也各有不同。
Demographics of Islam
伊斯兰教人口分布
Islam is the world’s second largest religion after Christianity, with approximately 1.5 billion adherents—nearly a quarter of the global population. Islam dominates the religious landscape of the Middle East, North Africa, and large parts of Asia. Though the Arab world is often regarded as the historical heartland of Islam, Arabs comprise only about 20 percent of the world’s Muslim population, while about 30 percent come from the Indian subcontinent and the rest live in Asia outside the Middle East and the West. The country with the largest Muslim population is Indonesia, home to about 13 percent of all Muslims worldwide. Islam is the largest religion in Africa, with a particularly strong presence in the North and West. Sizeable Muslim minorities exist in many countries, including Russia and China. Islam is the second largest religion in much of Europe, and Muslim communities exist in North and South America as well. By best estimates, 87-90 percent of Muslims are Sunni and 10-13 percent are Shi’a, with small numbers belonging to other sects.
伊斯兰教是位列基督教之后的世界第二大宗教，信徒约有15亿人，占世界总人口的近1/4。伊斯兰教在中东、北非和亚洲广大地区中占主导地位。尽管阿拉伯世界常被视为伊斯兰教的历史性中心地域，但阿拉伯人只约占世界穆斯林人口的20%。另外约有30%的穆斯林居住在印度次大陆， 其他居住在中东以外的亚洲地区以及西方国家。印度尼西亚是拥有穆斯林人口最多的国家，是世界约13%穆斯林的家园。伊斯兰教也是非洲最大的宗教，主要分布在北非和西非。许多国家均有数目可观的穆斯林少数人口，其中包括俄罗斯和中国。在欧洲大部分地区，伊斯兰教是第二大宗教，北美和南美亦有穆斯林社区。大约87%-90%的穆斯林是逊尼派，10%-13%为什叶派，少数穆斯林隶属其它教派。
Islamic Scripture
伊斯兰教经典
The primary scripture of Islam is the Qur’an, a book regarded by Muslims as the eternal, literal word of God as revealed to the prophet Muhammad over a 23-year period in the seventh century CE. The Qur'an sets out core Muslim beliefs about the oneness of God as well as moral and practical guidelines. The original Arabic, considered the final revelation by God to humanity, was fixed in writing shortly after the death of Muhammad in 623 CE. The Qu’ran contains 114 chapters (suras), all but one beginning with the bismillah: “In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful”. The secondary source of scriptural authority is the Sunnah, the sayings and actions of Muhammad, compiled into collections knows as hadith in the centuries following his death. The Qur’an and the Sunnah are the source of the divine law (sharia), which outlines rights owed to God and to others, including norms for family life (marriage, divorce, inheritance), commerce, finance, and war and peace.
伊斯兰教首要经藉是《古兰经》，穆斯林认为这是安拉永恒的不刊之说，在公元7世纪先后经历23年向使者穆罕默德降示而来。《古兰经》宣示穆斯林的核心信仰，即安拉具有独一性，也定下道德和实践准则。《古兰经》的阿拉伯语原文被认为是安拉对人类的最终启示，在公元623年穆罕默德死后不久集结成文。《古兰经》共有114章（苏拉），除一章以外，其余均始于太斯米：“奉至仁至慈的真主之名”。伊斯兰教的次级经典是《圣行》，这是穆罕默德言行的汇集，在他死后数世纪编辑而成。《古兰经》和《圣行》是圣法（沙利亚法）的主要来源，其中概述了对真主和他人的权利，包括家庭生活准则（结婚，离婚，遗产继承等），商业、金融、战争与和平的规范等。
THEMES
Islam on the Religious Other
伊斯兰教关于宗教他者的观念
The overriding message of the Qur'an is total submission to the one God, creator and master of all things. The Qur'an speaks against those who deny the one God, sow corruption on earth, and lead sinful lives—but it does not reject other religions. Indeed it is remarkably uninterested in confessional affiliation so long as people believe in God, express gratitude to Him in all things, and lead lives in anticipation of a final day of judgment. The Constitution of Medina, a document composed by the Prophet Muhammad for organizing life under his leadership, mentions Jews and a non-descript category of believers alongside Muslims. History attests to examples of communalism in the name of Islam, although openness to other communities is enshrined in sharia, awarding legal status to "the people of the book," a category that has been flexibly defined even if normally associated with Jews and Christians. Over the past two centuries, the experience of colonialism has hardened Muslim attitudes towards Jews and Christians. However, in two historically sensitive areas - intermarriage and apostasy—some prominent Muslim commentators have sought to loosen traditional blanket prohibitions in recent years.
《古兰经》中凌驾一切的信息，即是对唯一真主、创造万有并掌管万有者的完全顺从。尽管《古兰经》批评那些不信唯一真主、在地上散播腐败以及过着有罪生活的人，但并不拒斥其他宗教。实际上，它看起来明显对认信归属不感兴趣，只要人们相信安拉，在所有情形下均感谢安拉，并过着一种期待最后审判日的生活。《麦地那宪章》作为由先知穆罕默德起草以管理其属下的臣民的文件，提到犹太人以及其他穆斯林之外的信仰群体。即便历史证明存在以伊斯兰为名义的社群主义的例子，对其他群体的开放包含于伊斯兰教法中，如授予“圣经之民”以合法地位——这一概念自身是被灵活界定的，即便它常与犹太人、基督徒联系在一起。在过去的两个世纪里，殖民主义的经历使穆斯林对犹太人和基督徒的态度走向僵化。然而在两个历史敏感领域，跨教联姻和改教问题上，一些著名的穆斯林评论家也试图放松传统的全面禁止令。
Islam on Justice and Injustice
伊斯兰教关于正义和非正义的观念
Justice in Islam is owed to God by recognizing the duty to worship him and to others by treating them fairly and truthfully. In the end, ultimate justice will be meted out on Judgment Day, when God exercises his exclusive right to judge humans and to reward and punish them. Indeed, it is God who commands justice and forbids injustice, delegating to humans, as His representatives on earth, responsibility for "commanding the right and prohibiting the wrong." Sharia was never conceived as state law; its supervision was the purview of religious scholars, whereas the duty of sultans, shahs, and other rulers was to abide by it, if not actively enforce it. Religious and political establishment have never overlapped completely; they have traditionally been seen as complementary, working together for the welfare of Muslim society. Since independence from colonial rule, most Muslim-majority nations have tended to adopt laws of European origin in all areas except family life. Influential exceptions are the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran, which reserve a much larger role for Islamic law.
在伊斯兰教中，正义源于真主。人们有义务崇拜安拉，并公正、诚实、平等地对待他人——包括商业交易、家庭关系、法庭作证、言论、保护财物及弱小等方面。最终，所有的正义都将在审判日得到实现，安拉将行使其审判人类、决定赏罚的专权。实际上，是真主在掌管正义并禁止非正义，他委托人类作其在地上的代表——“劝善戒恶”。伊斯兰教法（沙里亚）从来没有被看做是国家法律；它的监管属于宗教学者的范围；苏丹、沙赫及其他统治者的职责是遵守它（如果不是积极地执行）。宗教和政治机构从来没有完全重叠，传统上它们被认为是相互补充的，以共同服务于穆斯林社会的幸福。自从独立于殖民统治后，大多数以穆斯林为主体的国家都采取了源于欧洲的法律，家庭生活除外。比较有影响的例外是沙特王国和伊朗共和国，两者为伊斯兰教法保留了非常重要的位置。
Islam on Health and Illness
伊斯兰教关于健康和疾病的观念
The belief that body and soul belong to God and will return to him grounds Muslim recognition of the sanctity of human life and of the need to ensure both physical and spiritual well-being. The Qur'an speaks of God's revelation as healing for the illness of the human heart, and the Prophet is reported to have exhorted treatment of the sick. His statement that for every illness God gives a cure has inspired Muslims through the centuries to pursue medical knowledge. Notwithstanding a minority view that true faith requires total reliance on God, recourse to medical treatment is not viewed as a weakness of belief, even if illness can also be seen as a trial by God meant for atonement and spiritual progress. During much of the Middle Ages, Islamic medicine was more advanced than in the West. In more recent centuries, Muslims have sought to harmonize advances in medical science and technology emanating from the West with religious values around issues including the beginning and end of life, such as abortion and artificial life support.
身体与灵魂均属于安拉并将回归于主的信念，是穆斯林认识到生命的神圣性以及维持身心健康之需要的基础。《古兰经》提及安拉关于治疗人们心病的启示，先知则被记载曾劝勉对病者的治疗；先知声称：对每一种疾病，安拉都预备了治疗方法。这在漫长的历史中激励着穆斯林对医学知识的追求。尽管少数人主张真正的信仰需要完全信靠安拉，但求助医疗并不被看作是一种信仰软弱的表现，甚至疾病也可被认为是安拉为救赎和灵性进步而施与的考验。在中世纪的大部分时间里，伊斯兰医学比西方更为先进。在最近几个世纪，穆斯林开始试图将西方医疗科学与技术的进步与其在围绕生命开始与终结等议题(如堕胎和人工生命支持)上的宗教价值观相调和。
Islam on Wealth and Poverty
伊斯兰教关于富裕和贫穷的观念
For Islam, all belongs to God, who provides material sustenance for humanity. At the same time, people are morally bound to support themselves and their families; idlers and thieves are considered parasites. Islam's protection of private property is tempered by its recognition that the poor have a claim on the property of the rich, who are exhorted to give generously out of their surplus. Almsgiving is a pillar of Islam, and sharing one's wealth with the poor has been recognized as an effective means to atone for sin. Within this broad framework, differences of opinion abound. For example, demanding interest on loans used for meeting basic necessities of life, defined as usury, is roundly condemned, while debate continues on the status of modern banking practices, even as their potential contribution to social prosperity is recognized. With the emergence of oil wealth, especially in the Gulf, great energy has been devoted to reviving the financial norms of Islam, evident in the emergence of an influential international Islamic banking system. Today, robust national and transnational Islamic social institutions provide poverty relief, education, and health services, often more effectively than the state.
伊斯兰教认为，安拉是创造万有并供养众生的主。同时，维持个人及家庭生计是道德义务；懒汉和小偷被看做是寄生虫。伊斯兰教对个人财产的保护与另一条指令相辅相成，即穷人有权分享富人的财产；富人则不应挥霍，而是应该广施行善。“天课”是伊斯兰的五功之一。施舍穷人被认为是赎罪或者补偿礼仪失责的有效手段。如此，财富是一种积极的品质，但必须伴以对群体团结的沉重负担——强调每个人对其他人的责任以及对整个社会的责任。在这一大的框架内，则可谓意见纷呈。比如：对应付基本生计的贷款征收利息，被视为剥削而遭严厉谴责。而争议甚至延伸至现代银行体系，尽管其对社会繁荣的潜在贡献已经被认可。随着石油的发现，特别是在海湾地区，如何复兴伊斯兰的金融规范引起了人们的深度重视。一个有着广泛效应的国际伊斯兰银行系统的出现即是例证。现今，良好的国内及国际伊斯兰社会机构提供救济、教育和医疗服务，而且通常比政府更有效。
Islam on Peace and Violence
伊斯兰教关于和平和暴力的观念
Peace is associated in the Qur'an with God, making it the defining feature of the life intended for humanity, to be fully realized ultimately in the next life. Islam recognizes corruption as endemic to humanity and the need for force to maintain political and social peace, within and across societies. Early biographies of the Prophet Muhammad suggest that while he waged war, he always sought a just peace—sometimes over the protests of his companions. Considerable confusion attaches to the concept of jihad, which can be translated as either spiritual or armed struggle. During the early centuries of Islam, scholars set ethical limits on war-making. Intentions had to be pure, and not just self-interested, and the use of force had to be absolutely necessary, for example, to protect the religious community, preserve justice, or defend territory. Jihad to extend the abode of Islam was driven more by imperial than by religious considerations. The Qur’an forbids coercion in religious affairs: “There is no compulsion in religion.” (Qur’an 2:256) and killing a life without cause is equivalent to "killing the whole human race" (Qur’an 5:32). Modern calls for holy war against the infidels, articulated by Osama bin Laden and others, are at odds with the Islamic tradition and roundly denounced by leading Muslim scholars. Islam is also home to a pacifist current, most richly developed within Sufism.
在《古兰经》中，和平与真主相联系，是人道生活的主要标志，并在来世最终完全实现。伊斯兰教认为，腐化是人性的通病，因此需要武力来维持社会内部以及社会之间的政治和社会和平。先知穆罕默德的早期传记记载，当他发动战争时，他总是寻求正义的和平——有时甚至不顾其同伴的反对。“圣战”（吉哈德）的概念引起了诸多的争论，它可以被解释为精神的或武力的斗争。在伊斯兰教早期，学者们为发动战争设置了道德的限制。战争的目的必须是纯洁的，而不仅仅是为了自我利益；武力的使用必须是绝对必要的，如为了保护宗教群体、捍卫正义或保卫领土。为了伊斯兰教的扩张而发动的圣战，更多是一种帝国行为，而非出于宗教的考虑。《古兰经》禁止宗教强迫。“对于宗教，绝无强迫”（《古兰经》2:256）。无缘由地杀死一个人，“如杀众人”（《古兰经》5:32）。本•拉登等人号召发动反对异教者的现代圣战，不仅与伊斯兰教的传统相悖，而且遭到许多顶级穆斯林学者的谴责。伊斯兰教同样有一个和平主义的支派，最为突出地体现在苏菲派中。
