Judaism
Judaism is a religious tradition centered on the idea of a covenant between God and the Jewish people that can be traced back to the prophets Abraham and Moses. The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and an extensive interpretative literature (Mishnah and Talmud) outline the laws and practices that provide a basis for the different contemporary currents of Judaism, including Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. Judaism is the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths and the smallest of the world’s major religions, with around 15 million adherents. The US and Israel have the largest Jewish populations, together accounting for about 75 percent of the worldwide total. Israel, the world’s only Jewish-majority state, has been in conflict with Palestinians and the Arab states that surround it for most of its history since its founding in 1948.
ESSAYS ON JUDAISM:
Judaism
犹太教
Judaism is the world’s oldest monotheistic faith. The Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) relate foundational narratives including God’s covenant with Abraham and his descendants, the exodus from Egypt and revelation of God’s law under Moses, the construction of the First Temple in Jerusalem under King Solomon, and the reign of King David. The memory of political unity and the laws of the Torah sustained Jewish communities in diaspora after the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Rabbis debated and applied the law and its core values of peace and justice to evolving cultural, social, and political contexts; the most influential rabbinic commentaries were set down in the Talmud (ca. 200-500 CE). As a small minority in Christian Europe and the Islamic world, Jews suffered discrimination and periods of outright persecution, which reached a terrible climax in the Holocaust (1941-1945), which took six million Jewish lives. Israel, founded in 1948 as a parliamentary democracy and the first Jewish state in almost two millennia, has since found itself in political, territorial, and military conflict with most of its Arab neighbors.
犹太教是世界上最古老的一神信仰。《希伯来圣经》（《托拉》）讲述了最基本的信息，包括神与亚伯拉罕及其后裔所立的约、出埃及和神的律法在摩西身上的启示、所罗门王在耶路撒冷建造第一圣殿以及大卫王的统治。在公元70年罗马摧毁犹太人的第二圣殿后，政治统一的记忆和《托拉》支撑着离散中的犹太人。拉比们互相讨论，并将律法及其关于和平和正义的核心价值观念运用到不断变化的文化、社会和政治处境中；其中，最具影响力的拉比评论最后汇集成《塔木德经》（公元200-500年）。无论在基督教的欧洲还是伊斯兰世界，犹太人都是少数派，他们长期遭受歧视甚至是公开的迫害，这最终在大屠杀（1941-45）时期达至可怕的顶点——大屠杀夺走了 600万犹太人的生命。1948年以色列建立了议会民主制的国家，这也是差不多两千年来的第一个犹太国家。从此，他们就身处与其大多数阿拉伯邻国的政治、领土和军事冲突中。
Jewish Beliefs
犹太教信仰
Jewish belief begins with the existence of a single God, unitary in nature and utterly distinct from humanity, who created and holds power over all things. It further asserts a special covenant between God and the Jewish people beginning with Abraham, in which Jews are called to be a “light to the nations.” Moses is considered the chief of all the Prophets, and his Torah—the first five books of the Hebrew scriptures—is believed to be God's revelation. Specific theological beliefs vary widely within Judaism. As a rule, Jews believe in free will and divine reward and punishment, but the afterlife is a much less prominent theme than in Christianity and Islam. Practice is critical: a relationship with God through obedience to the divine law, however differently understood. Belief in a coming messiah varies, ranging from the Orthodox expectation of a king from the House of David who will rule the Jewish people according to Jewish law to the Reform rejection of the idea of a messiah altogether.
犹太教信仰的基础是独一上帝，本质一元，祂与人类截然不同，创造万物并对万物握有权柄。犹太教进一步宣称，自亚伯拉罕起，犹太人与上帝之间存在特殊盟约，犹太人因此受呼召成为“列邦之光”。摩西被视为众先知之首，犹太人相信他的托拉——即希伯莱《圣经》的头五卷——是上帝的启示。犹太教内各具体神学信仰区别很大，但总体来说，教徒坚信自由意志、神圣奖赏和审判，但不如基督教和伊斯兰教那样重视来世的概念。实践至关重要：即通过遵从神法建立与上帝的关系，无论大家对此理解有何不同。不同宗派对弥赛亚来临的信念也有不同：正统派期待来自大卫家族的王会依据犹太律法统治犹太人，而改革派则拒绝接受弥赛亚信念。
Jewish Practices
犹太教实践
Jewish practices vary between denominations in the details and rigorousness of their observance. Shabbat, or Sabbath, is the weekly day of rest from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday, during which observant Jews attend synagogue and refrain from work. Prayer recitations generally occur three times a day, with a fourth on Shabbat and holidays. Religious clothing, such as the kippah head covering for men, are worn at all times by Orthodox Jews or during periods like prayer and religious study by many non-Orthodox Jews. Traditional Jewish kosher dietary laws determine what animals may be eaten (mammals with split hooves that chew their cud and sea animals with fins and scales), how foods may be eaten (dairy and meat may not be eaten together), and how animals may be slaughtered. Reform Judaism does not generally follow kosher rules. The relative roles of men and women in Jewish practices vary across denominations, with greater gender differentiation in Orthodox Judaism.
不同宗派在犹太教信仰的细节和遵从方面有所不同。安息日是每周一次的休息时间，从周五日落至周六日落，此际严守教规的犹太教徒放下工作，前往犹太会堂。诵经祈祷一般一日三次，在安息日和假日则有第四次。在宗教穿戴方面，例如男性盖在头顶的无沿圆帽，正统派犹太教徒会一直戴在头上，而大多数非正统派教徒则只在祈祷和宗教研习时才会佩戴。传统犹太教饮食诫命决定何种食物可以食用（反刍分蹄类哺乳动物、有鳍和鳞的海洋动物），如何食用（奶和肉不得一同食用），以及应该如何屠宰动物。改革派犹太教大体上不遵从饮食诫命。男性与女性在犹太教中相关定位随宗派亦有所不同，但在正统派犹太教徒中性别区分更大。
Demographics of Judaism
犹太教人口分布
The controversial question of who is considered a Jew makes measuring Jewish populations difficult, but it is estimated that there are around 15 million Jews worldwide, about 0.2 percent of the global population. The two-millennia Jewish Diaspora led to the formation of separate ethnic communities with a shared tradition but distinct practices. German-descended Ashkenazi Jews comprise over 75 percent of the world’s Jewish population, and Iberian-descended Sephardic Jews comprise up to 20 percent. Today, Israel, the world’s only Jewish-majority state, is 75 percent Jewish and is home to nearly 40 percent of the world’s Jews. The United States has about as many Jewish citizens as Israel. Reform Judaism is the largest denomination of American Jews (about 38 percent) but has only a tiny presence in Israel. Conservative Judaism is the second largest US denomination (about 33 percent), and Orthodox the third (about 22 percent). According to opinion polls, half of all Israeli Jews consider themselves secular, around 35 percent consider themselves non-denominationally religious, and 15-20 percent consider themselves Orthodox or Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi).
如何界定犹太人是有争议的问题，这也令统计犹太人口成为难事，但据估算，世界共有1500万犹太人，约占全球总人口的0.2%。两千年来，离散的犹太人形成了互相隔离的民族共同体，沿承共同的传统，但保持各自不同的习俗。德系阿什肯纳兹犹太人占世界犹太人口的75%，伊比利亚系塞法迪犹太人占20%。如今，以色列是世界上唯一以犹太人为主体的国家，其中75%的人口是犹太人，是世界40%犹太人的家园。美国的犹太人口总数几乎与以色列持平。改革派犹太教是美国犹太人中最大的宗派（约38%），但在以色列人数极少。保守派犹太教是美国第二大犹太宗派（约33%），正统派位列第三（约22%）。根据民意调查，在以色列的犹太人当中，大约半数认为自己是世俗的，约35%的人认为他们具有无宗派归属的宗教虔敬，15%到20%的人认为他们是正统派或极端正统派（即哈瑞第派）。
Jewish Scripture
犹太教经典
The Tanakh, largely identical to the Christian Old Testament, is the foundational scripture of Judaism. It consists of the Torah (“Teaching”)—the Five Books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, the Nevi’im (“Prophets”), and the Ketuvim (“Writings”). Judaism’s second central text is the Talmud, which is a record of discussions among leading ancient rabbis on Jewish law, ethics, customs, and history. The Talmud is made up of the Mishnah—the first written compilation of Jewish oral traditions, known as the “Oral Torah”—and the Gemara—commentary on the Mishnah. Most Jewish denominations place equal value on the Tanakh and Talmud, though Reform Judaism downplays the latter. While the Tanakh and Talmud are the principal sources of textual authority, Judaism’s vast compendium of rabbinic literature includes other sources of wisdom and guidance such as Midrash, a form of biblical exegesis that incorporates elements of Jewish tradition and legend.
与基督教旧约大部分内容相同的塔纳赫是犹太教的基本经典，包括托拉（“学说”），即摩西五经：《创世纪》、《出埃及记》、《利未记》、《民数记》和《申命记》，以及先知书和文集。犹太教的次级重要文本是塔木德，这是古代主要拉比们关于犹太律法、伦理、习俗和历史的讨论纪录。塔木德由密西拿和革马拉组成：密西拿是犹太口述传统的最早成文编著，被称为“口传律法典”；革马拉是对密西拿的注释。多数犹太人认为塔纳赫和塔木德具有相等价值，但改革派犹太教更重视塔纳赫。尽管塔纳赫和塔森德是经典权威的首要来源，但犹太教拉比文献的浩翰纲要也包括其它学识和指导，例如米德拉西，即犹太传统和传说的圣经讲解。
THEMES
Judaism on the Religious Other
犹太教关于宗教他者的观念
Judaism is home to many different perspectives on relations with non-Jews. From biblical times the Jewish community was defined both through kinship ties and through a shared covenantal relationship with God, expressed in the law of the Torah. The ancient experience of war and exile reinforced this communal identity and frequent denigration of foreigners, although the Hebrew Scriptures also counsel hospitality to strangers. The theme of universality is also very prominent. God is the God of all, and the prophet Isaiah, in particular, shares a vision of universal human brotherhood. The Talmud is the site of debates between rabbis for whom Jews are God’s chosen people surrounded by enemies and idolaters and others for whom that chosen status is compatible with God’s saving plan for all humanity. For much of Jewish history, the experience of discrimination and persecution, particularly in Christian Europe, strengthened support for the more exclusivist position. In the contemporary era, Judaism’s diverse branches—Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and their many variations—have differed on the proper approach to interfaith dialogue. Some see it as a potential threat to Jewish identity and tradition, while for others it is a way to communicate God’s will and call to justice and service to a wider circle of humanity.
关于同非犹太人的关系，犹太教内部有着许多不同的观点。从圣经时代起，犹太群体的界定包括亲属关系，以及体现于《托拉》律法的与神之间共同的约。尽管《希伯来圣经》同样包括友待外人的劝告，但是古代的战争和流放经历强化了这一群体的身份认同及对外邦人的诋毁。普遍主义的主题同样是明显的——神是所有人的神；先知以赛亚（尤以他为甚）分享了一种天下皆兄弟的愿景。在《塔木德经》中，激烈的争论在两种观点间展开：一种认为犹太人作为神的选民被仇敌和偶像崇拜者所包围；一种认为选民的身份与神拯救全人类的计划可以协调。在大部分的犹太历史中，由于他们遭受歧视与迫害的经历（特别是在基督教的欧洲），排外的观点更加被强化。在当代，犹太教的各派别——改革派、保守派和正统派，以及他们的分支——在跨信仰对话的问题上可谓意见纷呈。有些人将此看做是对犹太身份和传统的潜在威胁；有些人则认为，这是将神关于公义和服侍的旨意和呼召传扬给更广泛人群的有效方式。
Judaism on Justice and Injustice
犹太教关于正义和非正义的观念
A tradition organized around the idea of God’s law for humankind, Judaism has a long history of reflection on justice in social and political affairs. The Hebrew scriptures emphasize again and again that God seeks justice and is himself just. Rulers are to be held to a high standard, as when Nathan the prophet rebukes King David for a glaring ethical lapse (2 Samuel 12). The 613 commandments (mitzvoth) given in the Torah encompass both religious rituals and binding ethical norms for a just society. After the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE), rabbinic reflection in the Diaspora on the law as a guide to human affairs continued in the Talmudic tradition. Maimonides (1135-1204 CE) acknowledged established teachings about limits on state power, but posited greater discretion for rulers. With the transition to modernity it becomes more difficult to identify particular Jewish approaches to social and political justice; a tremendous diversity of religious, social, and political views proliferates under headings including assimilationist reformist, conservative, orthodox, religious Zionist, and non-religious Zionist. Common to most all is an embrace of democracy and human rights growing out of the historical idea of a covenant that binds rulers and ruled through fundamental norms of justice. Today, debate ranges inside and outside Israel on what constitutes just treatment of its Palestinian citizens and those living in the occupied territories.
犹太教的传统围绕神为人类所设的律法而形成，对社会和政治事务中的正义问题有着漫长的思想史。《希伯来圣经》一再强调，神是公义的，神本身即是公义。国王必须要有很高的道德标准，比如当大卫王犯有明显的道德过失时先知拿单对他的批评（撒母耳记下12章）。《托拉》中的“613条诫律”（米茨沃特）包括了关于正义社会的宗教礼仪和道德规范。在犹太第二圣殿被毁后（公元70年），拉比们在大流散中持续反思律法作为人类事务的指引，并最终汇集成《塔木德》传统。迈蒙尼德（1135-1204）肯定既定的关于限制国家权力的教义，但给国王以更多的决定权。随着向现代社会的过度，越来越难讲具体的犹太教义与社会和政治正义联系起来；极其多元化的宗教、社会和政治观点以各种名目出现，包括同化改革派、保守派、正统派、宗教复国主义和世俗复国主义等。他们的一个共同点则是处于历史观念对民主和人权的拥护——一份经由基本的正义原则在统治者与被统治者之间的契约。当前，以色列内外不断讨论的是，如何公平地对待其巴勒斯坦公民以及那些生活的占领区的巴勒斯坦人。
Judaism on Health and Illness
犹太教关于健康和疾病的观念
Human health and flourishing are core values in the Jewish tradition. At times the Hebrew scriptures suggest that illness is the result of sinful behavior; lepers, for example, are sometimes depicted as afflicted with their illness because of ethical shortcomings. The much greater emphasis, however, is placed on God as healer. The Psalms describe a Yahweh who cures the ill and looks after those who are sick. The history of Jewish medicine and its codification in rabbinic law (Halakha) is grounded in an ethic of healing; physical suffering is considered an evil to be combated through the use of reason and specialized knowledge, understood as gifts of God and products of human ingenuity. Contemporary Jewish medical ethics draws on rabbinic law and adapts it to contemporary issues ranging from stem cell research and abortion to organ transplantation and artificial life support. A common thread linking Jewish reflection and action around medical questions is the command to “heal the world” (tikkun olam).
人的健康与活力是犹太传统的核心价值。有时，《希伯来圣经》暗指疾病是犯罪的后果；比如，麻风病患者就时常被认为病因系于他们的道德错误。然而，其更强调的是神的救治。《诗篇》将耶和华描述成治愈百病并照顾所有患者的神。犹太医学的卓越历史及其在拉比法典（哈拉卡）中的汇集基于一种治疗伦理；身体的疾痛作为一种恶，可以通过理性和专业知识而得到治疗，这被看做是神的恩赐和人类智慧的表现。当代的犹太医学伦理参照拉比法典，并将其运用于许多当下的问题上，包括干细胞研究、堕胎、器官移植、人工生命维持等。在医疗问题上，贯穿犹太人思想和行动的一条主线是“修缮世界” (Tikkun Olam)的指令。
Judaism on Wealth and Poverty
犹太教关于富裕和贫穷的观念
Judaism is generally supportive of the pursuit of wealth, as long as it is combined with generosity to the poor and less fortunate. The Book of Genesis relates how Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph amassed and administered wealth. The Book of Proverbs seems to laud hard work and material productivity, and Job is rewarded by God for his travails with twice his original fortune. This positive valuation of material wealth should be read against other biblical verses which demonstrate a marked concern for the plight of the poor and other groups on the margins of society, including slaves, orphans, and widows. The condemnation of wealth pursued without concern for the good of the community and the wider society is a theme of rabbinic law (Halakha). With the advance of industrialization and widespread poverty and social inequality in the 19th century, many Jewish intellectuals and labor leaders took up socialist ideas. Today, Jewish charities are active inside the Jewish community and around the world, and Jewish citizens in Israel, the United States, and Europe tend to be supportive of a robust welfare state.
一般来讲，犹太教赞同追求财富，同时强调对贫苦或不幸人群的施舍。《创始记》讲述了亚伯拉罕、以撒和雅各如何积累并管理他们的财富。约瑟也是一个极其富有的人，并最终愿意与他的弟兄分享自己的财富。《箴言》赞誉勤劳和物质生产，神为称赞约伯的辛苦劳动而赐给他两倍于原来的财产。与这一对物质财富的积极评价相对，另有经文则表现出对穷人及其他社会边缘群体的深切关注，包括奴隶、孤儿和寡妇。在拉比法典（哈拉卡）、迈蒙尼德及其他中世纪和近代早期犹太思想家的著作中，一个主题即是批评只追求财富而不顾及邻舍和整个社会的行为。随着19世纪的工业化进程以及与之相随的更普遍的贫困和社会不平等，许多犹太知识分子和劳工领袖接受了社会主义的思想，其中最著名的即卡尔•马克思和罗莎•卢森堡。今天，犹太人的慈善机构无论在犹太群体内部还是全世界都很活跃，以色列、美国和欧洲的犹太公民也都倾向于支持一个强大的福利国家。
Judaism on Peace and Violence
犹太教关于和平与暴力的观念
Peace is a central value within Judaism. The Hebrew scriptures oscillate in their accounts of the legitimate use of force. In some cases, Israelite violence against others is sanctioned by God, most notably in the Book of Joshua. Elsewhere in the scriptures, peace is held out as the most desirable of social norms, the ideal state to which all human social action must be geared. The prophetic books, most known for their apocalyptic predictions, also include powerful evocations of a future era of social peace and harmony (for example, Isaiah 2:4). Moses Maimonides (1135-1204 CE) drew on the Talmud and ancient Greek philosophy to argue that violence is justified for self-protection and for the maintenance of political order, but a ruler should seek a peaceful resolution before engaging in military action. In the contemporary era, Jewish reflection on matters of war and peace is shaped by the historical legacies of Zionism, the Holocaust, and of multiple wars between Israel and its neighbors. Peace remains the core value, even as security and survival are overriding concerns in Israeli politics and foreign policy.
和平是犹太教的一种核心价值观念。在关于合法使用武力这一问题上，《希伯来圣经》中的叙述并不一致。在一些情况下，神认可了以色列人针对外人的暴力，这最突出地体现在《约书亚记》中。在圣经的其他地方，和平则被视为最令人向往的社会价值，一种所有人类社会行动需要达到的理想状态。众先知书以关于世界末日的预言最为著称，同样包含关于未来社会安定和平的强有力的召唤（例如，以赛亚书2:4）。摩西•迈蒙尼德(公元1135-1204)引用《塔木德经》和古希腊的哲学论证了用于自卫和维护政治秩序的暴力是合法的，但在动用武力之前统治者必须首先寻求和平解决分歧的方式。在当代，犹太人关于战争与和平问题的反思被犹太复国主义遗产、大屠杀以及以色列与其周边国家的多次战争等因素所塑造。尽管安全与生存是以色列政治和外交最重要的考量，和平仍旧是价值观念的核心。
